THE ANCIENT WORLD - ASSYRIAN EMPIRE

The first strong Assyrian state was formed in the late Bronze Age in the wake of the decline of the Mitanni, a confederation of tribes living along the upper reaches of the Tigris River. In the fourteenth century B.C.E., Ashururballit led his people in an expansion westward, during which they came to control the upper arch of the Fertile Crescent for approximately a century. The Assyrians ran up against the power of Aram (situated in modern-day Syria), which blocked their access to western trade routes. Still, the early success coupled with the continued fighting against Aram made the Assyrian army strong and experienced, able to defend itself and mount major raids far to the south and west. With this powerful military, Assyria dominated the Near East by the 900s B.C.E.

Initially, the Assyrians’ main objective was to expand to the Mediterranean coast in order to control the major trade routes of ancient times. Assyrian armies finally overcame the resistance of nations led by Aram, and they captured the major city of Damascus in 732 B.C.E. Old Testament accounts tell of Assyrian attacks into Samaria and Judah, and fighting against the Egyptians. Assyria established empire status under the leadership of Sargon II (722–705 B.C.E.), who named himself after the Sumerian leader Sargon the Great, the first well-known conqueror. Sargon II’s son Sennacherib maintained the lands his father had conquered, and raided Asia Minor after 700 B.C.E. Sennacherib established control over Phoenician towns on the Mediterranean coast all the way to the Egyptian frontier. The last of the great emperors was Esarhaddon (681–668 B.C.E.), who came to the throne by murdering his father, Sennacherib. To secure his frontiers, Esarhaddon coupled diplomacy with warfare. He entered into agreements with the Medes to the east and the Cimmerians to the north, but also invaded Egypt, a nation seemingly always in rebellion against the Assyrian demands for tribute. By the end of Esarhaddon’s reign, Assyrian territory stretched from the Persian Gulf across the Fertile Crescent and halfway down the Nile in Egypt.

Assurbanipal was the last of the Assyrian kings. More of a scholar than a warrior, he let his generals punish the rebellious while he established a large library at Nineveh.

The Assyrian Empire came to an abrupt end in 612 B.C.E. Three hundred years of warfare, both conquests and the suppression of almost constant rebellions, had put a serious strain on Assyrian manpower. The birthrate had not kept up with the casualty rate, and the Assyrians had been obliged to use conscript troops, who proved of doubtful loyalty. Agreements with neighbors lapsed, and enemies pressed from all directions. Ultimately the Medes led a coalition that laid siege to the Assyrian capital city of Nineveh, which fell after three months, spelling the end of the empire, an end more celebrated than lamented. The biblical prophet Nahum wrote, “All who hear the news of you clap their hands over you. For upon whom has not come your unceasing evil?” Nahum summed it up perfectly; Assyria had built and maintained its empire by military force and terror, showing no mercy to any defeated foe, whether in conquest or rebellion.

The Assyrians were the first people to institutionalize cruelty to control the lands they acquired. Towns destroyed in battle were left in ruins as an example to other possible foes. Ashurnasipal bragged, “I caused great slaughter. I destroyed, I demolished, I burned. I took their warriors prisoner and impaled them on stakes before their cities. . . . I flayed the nobles, as many as had rebelled, and spread their skins out on the piles [of dead bodies]. . . . Many of the captives I burned in a fire. Many I took alive; from some I cut off their hands to the wrist, from others I cut off their noses, ears and fingers; I put out the eyes of many soldiers. I burnt their young men and women to death.” This boast was not just Ashurnasipal’s; every leader acted in the same fashion. It is not surprising that they had to deal with constant rebellion; they certainly inspired no loyalty from their subjects.

Despite this negative characteristic, the Assyrians contributed to society and culture. Some of the world’s oldest roads were built in the time of Sargon II. This road system allowed for freer trade and the development of a postal system. The Assyrian Empire was the first to construct aqueducts. Adopting cuneiform script from the Babylonians, the Assyrians became the world’s first serious historians. They established a number of libraries, where they recorded scientific knowledge acquired on their own and from Babylon. They also inaugurated the first widespread use of iron. Though iron was used by the Hittites, the Assyrians were the first to use the metal for weapons. As more iron-producing territory came under their control, it became the most common metal in tool production, far outperforming anything made from bronze. Their artists are regarded as masters of relief work, with realistic and emotional portrayals of kings at war and sport.

The Assyrians are best remembered, however, for their accomplishments in warfare. Using chariots (already invented), they were the first to add cavalry to their army, which often proved the decisive factor in their victories. Assyria was the first state, but certainly not the last, to build its society around the armed forces. They established what may be called the first true empire, because whereas most previous warriors cam paigned mainly for loot and tribute, the Assyrians established political control by appointing governors in conquered lands. Had they had the statesmanship skills to match their military prowess, they could not only have lasted longer as an empire, but they would also have had an even greater impact on the progress of ancient society and culture.

See also Hittites; Sargon the Great. 

References: Bury, J. B., S. A. Cook, and F. E. Adcock, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History: The Assyrian Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1923–1939); Laessoe, Jorgen, People of Ancient Assyria, Their Inscriptions and Correspondence (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963); Saggs, H. W E, The Might That Was Assyria (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1984).